Siddhartha
Water shapes our settlement patterns, agricultural systems, and cultural practices. As a critical resource for human survival and a fundamental element for planetary balance, it is facing multiple challenges. Although water covers approximately 71% of the Earth’s surface, only about 2.5% constitutes freshwater (USGS, 2019). Out of which only a minor fraction is within the human range of usage. In India, where nearly 17% of the population depends on just 1/25th of the water resources, the situation is more concerning. More than rivers and monsoons, it is the invisible source beneath the soil i.e., groundwater, that sustains a majority of India’s daily needs. Groundwater is the backbone of India’s water architecture as it sustains nearly 60% of irrigation, 85% of rural drinking water supply, and 45% of urban water needs (Saha & Ray, 2019). However, India is now facing a groundwater crisis that threatens both development and ecological balance. I try to unpack the multifaceted nature of groundwater insecurity in India by exploring its dimensions, major challenges, socioeconomic and environmental impacts, evaluating existing policy responses, and recommending pathways for reform.
2. Water Security and Groundwater Dimensions in India
Water security, as defined by the UN-Water (2013), refers to the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities and acceptable quality of water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development. It encompasses dimensions such as availability, accessibility, quality, and risk resilience (Asaka et al., 2024).
Chiluwe and Claassen (2020) present a framework emphasizing interactions between the resource base, infrastructure, governance regimes, and users—factors increasingly impacted by internal and external drivers such as population growth, climate change, and institutional fragmentation. Similarly, Butte et al. (2022) highlight themes such as ecosystem needs, human vulnerability, policy resilience, and sustainability in shaping water security outcomes.
In India, groundwater security forms a crucial pillar of this broader framework. But the highly decentralized and unregulated nature of groundwater extraction in India, when coupled with institutional neglect, makes it particularly vulnerable. Groundwater extraction in India has become largely unregulated due to provisions in the Easement Act of 1882, which link groundwater rights to land ownership. This is further amplified by water-intensive cropping patterns, free power subsidies, and a lack of regulation.
Key Issues in India’s Groundwater Sector
Groundwater security is threatened as it faces major issues of depletion and contamination, which are also related to climate change.
Firstly, India ranks as the leading global extractor of groundwater, underscoring the intensity of its resource utilization (Siebert et al., 2010). The annual extractable groundwater resource is assessed at 407.21 bcm; this limited resource is over-extracted using advanced drilling and pumping technologies, thus exceeding the recharge capacity. The CGWB (2023) report categorized more than one-fourth of units of groundwater in unsafe condition which constituted 11.23% as over-exploited, 3.17% as critical, and 11.63% as semi-critical units. The problem varies regionally as these sites face the most pressure in the states of Haryana, Punjab, and western Uttar Pradesh due to irrigation needs: Delhi due to high-density urban pressure; parts of Gujarat & Rajasthan due to semi-arid conditions; some parts of southern states due to soil and rock characteristics.
Over 89% of groundwater extraction is used for irrigation, with wheat and paddy dominating crop choices due to MSP and power subsidies (Kim et al., 2018). This has led to an unsustainable agricultural-water-energy nexus. Seasonal fluctuations in groundwater availability are increasingly evident (Singh & Kumar, 2020), while NASA’s GRACE satellite data indicates an annual water table decline of around 0.3 meters in northwest India (Kim et al., 2018).
Secondly, groundwater faces contamination and pollution, which threaten its usability to human beings. The problem is widespread as it affects nearly 60% of districts in India, which are affected by four major contaminants: Arsenic, Nitrate, Fluoride, and Iron (CGWB, 2023; Lakhwan et al., 2024). For instance, arsenic affects 86 districts, fluoride 276, nitrate 387, and iron 297 (CGWB, 2023). These are results of over-exploitation, which increases the contaminant concentration. Leaks from septic tanks and leachates from landfills, especially in urban and peri-urban areas. Overuse of fertilizers and pesticides in fields leads to their percolation into groundwater.
Thirdly, this water crisis is further exacerbated by anthropogenic Climate change. As per Singh & Kumar (2020), groundwater depletion can be caused by low rainfall or overexploitation. Since more than 60% of groundwater is recharged through rainfalls annually (CGWB, 2023), frequent erratic patterns of rainfall due to climate change are affecting it. Climate-induced disasters such as floods, droughts, and heatwaves affect over 80% of India’s population and 75% of its districts (UNCCD, 2021; UNICEF & CEEW,2024). The annual per capita water availability declined from 1,816 m³ in 2001 to 1,544 m³ in 2011 (Suhag, 2016), placing India in the ‘water-stressed’ category. Rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns are projected to intensify both dry and wet seasons, further stressing groundwater resources (Sanjay et al., 2020).
Impacts of Groundwater Insecurity
These issues threaten India’s water security, which is interconnected with other vital sectors. For reference, the agriculture sector faces a challenge as more than 60% of the irrigated area relies on groundwater (CGWB, 2019). Groundwater depletion undermines India’s agrarian economy. Over 58% of rural households rely on agriculture (Kim et al., 2018), which is increasingly unviable due to high input costs and falling yields. Access to irrigation is skewed, disadvantaging small and marginal farmers. Any threat to it will affect food production and quality, thus affecting food security.
The contaminated water leads to diseases and deformities, thus undermining health. Exposure to contaminated groundwater is linked to fluorosis, arsenicosis, and gastrointestinal illnesses. The burden falls disproportionately on women, children, the elderly, and the poor (UNICEF & CEEW, 2024). Water is inherently linked to the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) sector, and the Inadequate WASH infrastructure leads to avoidable disease burdens: 69% of diarrheal diseases, 14% of respiratory infections, and 100% of soil-transmitted helminthiasis are linked to unsafe water (Wolf et al., 2023).
Moreover, the sociopolitical impacts of water insecurity felt by society are distributed unequally. Gender and caste-based barriers hinder equitable access to water. Numerous studies have shown that Dalit and Adivasi communities are often denied access to village wells and hand pumps, especially during times of scarcity (Joshi, 2011). As water becomes more scarce, women’s care burden increases, affecting education, income generation, and health (Seager, 2015). Disabled individuals face multi-dimensional obstacles in accessing safe water (WaterAid, 2017). The impacts are not limited to human society alone but also affect biodiversity and ecological integrity.
Policy Regulation and gaps
One of the foremost policies is Atal Bhujal Yojna (ABY), which promotes participatory water management and aquifer mapping in the states. ABY places a lot of faith in Gram Panchayats, but many of these lack the technical capacity, financial autonomy, and data literacy to implement it fully. So the uptake is uneven due to limited local capacity and a lack of data transparency (Lakhwan, 2024). The government has also launched the National Aquifer Mapping and Management Program (NAQUIM), which seeks to characterize aquifers and create management plans but lacks enforcement backing (CGWB, 2023). The Model Groundwater Bill (2017) recognizes groundwater as a public trust but remains unlegislated in most states due to reluctance. Easement-based ownership laws still dominate. The observation by Kumar & Bharat(2014) that the legal aspect of water is “non-uniform, inconsistent, and somewhat inadequate” still holds. The stakeholders in water governance include various ministries and departments, including the Ministry of Jal Shakti, Environment and Forests (MoEFCC), Urban Affairs (MoHUA) etc. So the issue is aggravated by a lack of coordination across departments (agriculture, energy, water, urban planning), hampering integrated responses, thus resulting in institutional fragmentation (Singh & Goyal, 2025).
Way Forward
Addressing India’s groundwater crisis demands a comprehensive and integrated approach. Agricultural reform is essential: crop diversification based on agro-climatic suitability, adoption of micro-irrigation techniques, and the rationalization of electricity subsidies through Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT) can reduce over-extraction (UNICEF & CEEW, 2024; Kim et al., 2018). Strengthening community-based stewardship is equally important, where groundwater user associations and participatory aquifer mapping could empower local actors to manage water sustainably (Atal Bhujal Yojana Guidelines, 2019). Simultaneously, the modernization of monitoring systems using IoT, remote sensing, and machine learning should be prioritized, along with real-time public access to data for transparency and accountability (UNICEF & CEEW, 2024).
In urban settings, protecting traditional water bodies and integrating circular water management models such as “use, treat, and reuse” can reduce the dependence on groundwater (Bitterman et al., 2016). Regulatory frameworks require urgent reform. Legislating the Model Groundwater Bill and establishing a rights-based approach that decouples groundwater ownership from land tenure is critical. Finally, resilience to climate change must be embedded in water governance by integrating SDG 6 with SDG 13 and by investing in climate-resilient WASH infrastructure, particularly in vulnerable districts (UNICEF & CEEW, 2024; Sanjay et al., 2020).
Conclusion
Groundwater security is not just an environmental goal but a developmental imperative for India. As the country aspires to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 6 in particular), ensuring the sustainability, equity, and quality of its groundwater resources must be prioritized. To address the challenges posed by increasing demand, contamination, and climate change, there is a need for comprehensive policy, institutional coherence, and climate adaptation with a focus on equity. This calls for an urgent shift from extraction-centered to stewardship-centered water governance, driven by science, inclusivity, and resilience.
Written by: SIDDHARTHA
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